The Cambridge Open-Review Educational Research e-Journal (CORERJ)

Does ‘WOW’ translate to an ‘A’? Exploring the effects of virtual reality assisted multimodal text on Chinese Grade 8 EFL learners’ reading comprehension

corerj

July 12, 2019

¶ 1 Leave a comment on paragraph 1 0 Introduction

¶ 2 Leave a comment on paragraph 2 0 In recent years, the incorporation of multimedia into computer-assisted language learning (MCALL) has opened a new horizon in education. In the reading aspect of second language acquisition (SLA), multimedia technologies extend the reading repertoire and provide EFL learners with opportunities to go beyond printed text and exposure to digital texts called “multimodal text” (Walsh, 2007: 26). This study is situated in the cognitive account of SLA, aiming to find out the potential impact of multimedia on reading comprehension, specifically how EFL learners decode word meanings and construct mental representations of the screen-based multimodal text in the working memory that differs from the print-based monomodal text. This article is a short summary of an ongoing study that aims to fully gauge the efficacy of multimedia, especially VR technology, in providing multimodal input and enhancing Chinese 8^th grade EFL students reading comprehension and offers a new category of multimodal text in the scholarship of MCALL and SLA.

¶ 3 Leave a comment on paragraph 3 0 Theoretical Background

¶ 4 Leave a comment on paragraph 4 0 Conceptual Framework

¶ 5 Leave a comment on paragraph 5 0 This study draws on the cognitive theory of learning with media (Moreno, 2006) and examines the efficacy of multimodal input in enhancing learners’ L2 reading comprehension. The cognitive theory of learning with multimedia adapts from the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2002), which has been adopted as theoretical framework by many empirical studies to investigate the effects of multimedia on learners’ listening comprehension (Jones & Plass, 2002), vocabulary acquisition (Jones & Plass, 2002; Altarriba & Knickerbocker, 2011) and reading comprehension (Plass, Chun, Mayer, & Leutner, 2003) in the L2 field. The cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2002) incorporates the cognitive load theory and dual coding theory and emphasises that dual input through words and pictures within learners’ capacities can promote learning outcome (see Figure 1).

¶ 6 Leave a comment on paragraph 6 0 Figure 1. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2002)

¶ 7 Leave a comment on paragraph 7 0 Moreno (2006) expands Mayer’s theory (2002) to include “media such as virtual reality, agent-based, and case-based learning environments” (p. 313) by adding manipulative input that enters into tactile sensory memory (see Figure 2), because the development of multimedia technologies such as VR platform extends multimedia learning to a multidimensional level beyond the scope of 2D verbal and pictorial input. For example, haptic feedback in VR platform allows information to be reinforced through the tactile sensory modality. Hence, VR-assisted input can provide learners with visual presentation, auditory narration and tactile interaction in the reading activity. In brief, this framework shows how multimodal input can promote learners’ active cognitive processes through a triple memory model.

¶ 8 Leave a comment on paragraph 8 0 Figure 2. Cognitive theory of learning with media (Moreno, 2006)

¶ 9 Leave a comment on paragraph 9 1 Situated in a broader picture of SLA, working memory as a gateway between sensory memory and long-term memory has been found instrumental in facilitating learners’ vocabulary acquisition and text comprehension. According to Kintsch and Kintsch (2005), readers’ comprehension can be further divided into microstructure and macrostructure levels that serve different functions. The microstructure comprehension means that readers can decode small linguistic units such as word meaning while the macrostructure comprehension requires readers to establish memory representation of the text. Both levels of reading comprehension require learners to identify words meaning, make links between sentences, develop a coherent representation of the content, integrate the textual information with prior knowledge and then organize it in the working memory. Thus, learners’ reading comprehension in the multimedia learning environment is largely depended on how multimodal input would influence the working memory. However, working memory has limited capacity to process and store multimodal input and there are mixed findings regarding the effects of multimedia assisted input on learners’ cognitive load. On the one hand, multimedia assisted input may exert the modality effect and reduce learners’ cognitive load when information is presented in different channels, while on the other hand it may exert the redundancy effect and increase learners’ cognitive load when identical information is presented in different channels simultaneously (Mayer, 2005). Since most studies have focused on visual and auditory input, it is of conceptual value to evaluate the effects of visual, auditory and tactile multimodal input imposed by VR technology on learners’ cognitive load and memorisation of textual information. Therefore, the proposed study will examine whether VR-assisted multimodal text could reduce learners’ cognitive load and deepen working memory, thereby enhancing reading comprehension in comparison to video-assisted multimodal text and print-based monomodal text.

¶ 10 Leave a comment on paragraph 10 0 Literature Review

¶ 11 Leave a comment on paragraph 11 1 The study will address the research gaps in MCALL and SLA fields by exploring the effects of VR-assisted multimodal input on different levels of L2 reading comprehension from objective performance and subjective cognition. Multiple studies have applied different modes of multimedia such as pictures, audio, video and subtitles to facilitate learners’ L2 acquisition (Lorenz, 2009; Lan and Sie, 2010) by using pre-test and post-test methodology in controlled experimental environment, while the cognition of learners has not been explored to capture a broad snapshot of the multimedia-assisted learning. Thus, this study will bridge the gap by conducting stimulated recall interviews to probe into learners’ cognitive processes in the reading activity to understand how multimodal input affect their memorisation of textual information. Furthermore, several studies have explored the effects of auditory and visual input on learners’ reading comprehension. Son (2003) found the integration of text with sound and image achieved greater reading comprehension than paper-based text reading. Segers and Hulstijn-Hendrikse (2008) compared three ways to teach reading comprehension and found that using oral presentation with pictures offered the optimum way to improve learning outcome. However, few studies have explored two levels of reading comprehension, and few studies have looked at post-test performance after a significant period of time that examines the efficacy of multimodal text on long-term memory apart from short-term memory, and no study has integrated VR technology with text reading yet. Therefore, this study is of conceptual value in the fields of MCALL and SLA by examining the immediate and delayed effects of VR-assisted multimodal text on learners’ macrostructure and microstructure reading comprehension.

¶ 12 Leave a comment on paragraph 12 0 Research Questions

¶ 13 Leave a comment on paragraph 13 0 Situating in the cognitive theory of learning with multimedia, the study attempts to answer the following questions:

0. ¶ 14 Leave a comment on paragraph 14 1
1. What are the immediate and delayed effects of input modality (VR-assisted multimodal text, video-assisted multimodal text, print-based monomodal text) on Chinese EFL learners’ macrostructure and microstructure reading comprehension?
2. input modality (VR-assisted multimodal text, video-assisted multimodal text, print-based monomodal text) affect learners’ cognitive load? If so, how does the changed cognitive load influence Chinese EFL learners’ reading comprehension?

• ¶ 15 Leave a comment on paragraph 15 0
• How do Chinese EFL learners perceive the effects of input modality (VR-assisted multimodal text, video-assisted multimodal text, print-based monomodal text) on reading comprehension?

¶ 16 Leave a comment on paragraph 16 1 The first question aims to examine the efficacy of multimodal input on learners’ reading comprehension at two levels. Screen-based multimodal text including VR-assisted and video-assisted multimodal texts and print-based multimodal text will be compared regarding the effects on macrostructure and microstructure reading comprehension. The second question evaluates whether multimodal input would exert the modality effect or redundancy effect on the working memory, thereby affecting learners’ reading comprehension. The third question captures learners’ perceptions towards the effectiveness of multimodal input and provides a detailed account of learners’ cognitive processes in the multimedia-assisted reading activity. Overall, the three questions aim to fully gauge the efficacy of multimodal text on L2 reading comprehension from objective performance and subjective perception.

¶ 17 Leave a comment on paragraph 17 1 Research Design

¶ 18 Leave a comment on paragraph 18 0 To address the three research questions, this study takes an important notion from Hitchcock and Hughes (1995) to design the research, starting from ontological assumptions to epistemological assumptions to methodological considerations and instrumentation, which can be briefly summarised in the Table 1.

¶ 19 Leave a comment on paragraph 19 0 Table 1

¶ 20 Leave a comment on paragraph 20 1 The Integrated Mixed Methods Research Design

¶ 21 Leave a comment on paragraph 21 0 Research Methodology

¶ 22 Leave a comment on paragraph 22 1 This study is situated in the pragmatist paradigm which “is not committed to any one system of philosophy or reality but focuses on the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of the research problem” (Creswell, 2003, p.11). The major rationale behind using pragmatism to guide this research is because the focus of this study is to design, implement and evaluate an intervention regarding multimodal text input. Based on the pragmatist paradigm, the study adopts mixed methods methodology to address research questions, which does not only combine separate strengths of relevant quantitative and qualitative methods but also integrate them into a systematic set of data collection methods. The choice of mixed methods methodology derives from the three research questions. The first and second questions compares different input modalities on Chinese EFL learners’ reading performance and cognitive load by collecting quantitative data from pre-test, immediate post-test and delayed post-test and scale ratings. The third question probes into participants’ perceptions towards multimedia assisted reading experience, thereby encouraging the researcher to utilise a qualitative method such as interview to collect feedback.

¶ 23 Leave a comment on paragraph 23 1 The study utilises concurrent triangulation strategy by collecting quantitative data and qualitative data in one phase as shown in Figure 2, although quantitative data will be given more weight over qualitative data in this study. The data will be analysed separately and then synthesised in the interpretation stage. The rationale for adopting this approach is that it can answer the research questions and triangulate quantitative and qualitative results to cross-validate research findings and conclusion.

¶ 24 Leave a comment on paragraph 24 0 Figure 3. Visual diagram of mixed methods concurrent triangulation strategy (Atif et al., 2013)

¶ 25 Leave a comment on paragraph 25 1 Ideally, the controlled experimental research design offers the optimum way to explore the causal relationship between input modality (independent variable) and learners’ reading comprehension (dependent variable). However, since the study will take place in a local middle school, it is not feasible to assign subjects into different conditions randomly, which may disturb the normal operation of the target school. Thus, this study adopts a quasi-experimental approach to examine the effects of multimodal input on learners’ reading comprehension. While quasi-experimental design is more practical to implement than experimental design, it is more susceptible to threats to internal validity. The target school has streamed classrooms by grouping students based on their academic performance into above average, average or below average. Students within a certain grade range are grouped together as a class. This study addresses the potential threat by selecting three average classes in which students have similar academic performance and language proficiency.

¶ 26 Leave a comment on paragraph 26 0 Participants and Sampling

¶ 27 Leave a comment on paragraph 27 0 The target sample in this study is Chinese L1-English L2 learners in grade 8 of a middle school. Three classes with a total of 140 students will participate in the study, and the average age of participants is 14 years old. The target school is located in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province where the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology and the provincial government take the lead in building a world-class VR centre. Given the limited time to undertake the research, I collaborate with the school that has been selected as a pilot school to apply VR technology into secondary education and equipped with a VR lab, rather than to find new schools to implement the technology from scratch. This school pays special attention to integrate technology into the curriculum and begins to teach biology, geography and history classes in the VR lab while the VR technology has not been incorporated into English subject yet.

¶ 28 Leave a comment on paragraph 28 0 This study adopts non-probability purposive sampling. Due to the restriction of the research site, it is not practical to draw a random sample from the all Chinese 8^th grade EFL learners in the target school. In order to address the threats to the validity and generalisability of the research findings posed by non-probability sampling, this study selects three classes from the same average level of academic performance without previous exposure to VR-assisted learning experience that can largely represent the sample. The three classes are randomly assigned into two experimental groups and one control group to control the variables of English proficiency and previous related experience. Experimental group A interacts with VR-assisted multimodal text with visual, auditory and tactile elements, and experimental group B watches video-assisted multimodal text with visual and auditory elements, while the control group C is situated in the traditional reading environment and read print-based text with visual element only. The English teacher involved in this study has more than twelve years of teaching experience with master’s degree in English and previous experience of using the research apparatus. The teacher only leads the reading activity with minimal involvement in assisting learners’ reading.

¶ 29 Leave a comment on paragraph 29 0 Research Apparatus and Treatment Materials 

¶ 30 Leave a comment on paragraph 30 0 zSpace all-in-one computer is used as the apparatus to provide VR-assisted multimodal input for participants in the experimental group A. It mainly consists of three components as shown in Figure 3: a specialised all-in-one computer with a 24-inch HD LCD display, a pair of polarized glasses, and a laser-based interactive stylus. The three components will be activated simultaneously to provide learners with an immersive and interactive learning environment. zSpace has developed modifiable curriculums in 3D models based on textbooks in secondary schools.  

¶ 31 Leave a comment on paragraph 31 0 Figure 4. Major components of the zSpace platform

¶ 32 Leave a comment on paragraph 32 0 zSpace brings visual, auditory and tactile elements together and provides learners with multimodal input. I will use the topic ‘the lifecycle of butterfly’ to illustrate how zSpace is used in the experiment. The VR-assisted multimodal input consists of visual input that presents 3D animation of different stages in the lifecycle of butterfly and digital text that will pop up on the screen once learners click on the relevant image, auditory input that narrates the digital text on the screen with sound effects and tactile input that enables learners to touch, interact with the butterfly, turn it around 360 degrees and even allow learners to closely observe it as if they were taking it out of the device. For experimental group B, the video-assisted multimodal input consists of visual and auditory elements without haptic feedback. Participants watch videos that illustrate the same content such as the lifecycle of butterfly with subtitles as the digital text and narration as auditory input in a classroom with computer and projector. Students in the control group C only receives the visual input of print-based text. Under three conditions, new words in the text are annotated in learners’ first language Chinese. The treatment materials are selected from 9^th grade lesson plan to ensure that 8^th grade learners are unfamiliar with topic knowledge, and learners’ language proficiency level and availability of the same content in both VR and video platforms are taken into consideration.

¶ 33 Leave a comment on paragraph 33 0 Data Collection

¶ 34 Leave a comment on paragraph 34 0 Under the guidance of mixed methods methodology, the study utilises both quantitative and qualitative primary data collection methods to attain methodological diversity and triangulation of findings.

¶ 35 Leave a comment on paragraph 35 0 Firstly, the study mainly uses reading tasks to assess learners’ understanding of the expository text. The reading tasks are formatted in multiple-choice questions and blank-filling questions in order to minimise the effect of subjective judgement that may be caused by open-ended questions and evaluate learners’ reading comprehension in an objective way. In each reading task, there are six questions with two on testing microstructure understanding (e.g. the meaning of certain words) and four on macrostructure (e.g. the main idea of the text). One point is given for a correct answer to each question and the final grade will be objective measure of learners’ reading comprehension.

¶ 36 Leave a comment on paragraph 36 0 Moreover, the survey instrument consists of three parts. Firstly, participants complete a demographic questionnaire (see Appendix 1) prior to the intervention to get a snapshot of learners’ background information including age, gender, English learning experience and previous experience of using multimedia, allowing the researcher to describe the sample accurately. Secondly, a prior knowledge survey (see Appendix 2) is administered to remove those who had already known the domain-specific topic well before the intervention so that the variable of prior knowledge will be controlled. Thirdly, participants will complete a cognitive load questionnaire that focuses on learners’ invested mental efforts in the reading task and perceptions of material difficulty. This questionnaire is adapted from the measures of Paas (1992) and Sweller, van Merriënboer, and Paas (1998) and Hwang, Yang, and Wang (2013). This questionnaire consists of eight items in mental effort and mental load dimensions with a five-point Likert rating scale (see Appendix 3). Although the self-reported nature of the rating scale may appear questionable, it has been applied in multiple studies and demonstrated that people were capable to measure their perceived cognitive load by giving numerical indications (Gimino, 2002; Ayres, 2006).

¶ 37 Leave a comment on paragraph 37 0 Lastly, stimulated recall interview as an introspective method will be used to elicit learners’ thoughts of cognitive processes involved in the reading activity with a visual or audio prompt (Gass & Mackey, 2013). In this study, six participants in each group will be invited to take part in a stimulated recall interview respectively on a voluntary basis. To ensure the validity of interview questions (see Appendix 4), opinions from the two English teachers have been obtained. A total of three interviews will be recorded for further transcription.

¶ 38 Leave a comment on paragraph 38 0 All participants remain anonymous during the data collection process. All data from the three sources mentioned above will be triangulated to compare the effectiveness of VR-assisted, video-assisted and print-based input on students’ reading comprehension at macrostructure and microstructure levels and explore participants’ perceptions towards multimedia-assisted reading. 

¶ 39 Leave a comment on paragraph 39 0 Research Procedures

¶ 40 Leave a comment on paragraph 40 0 The empirical research project can be largely divided into three stages: pre-intervention, reading intervention and post-intervention. Upon 5^th May 2019, participants have been introduced to the study and signed the consent form. Participants in experimental groups received orientation on the experimental procedures and learned how to operate the research apparatus zSpace. Baseline data has been obtained by having students finish a pre-test that includes three expository text reading and the prior knowledge survey before the intervention. A pilot study was conducted with nine students in a non-participant class. More annotations of words were added in the text and one video used in the experimental group B has been changed to a short one with captions.

¶ 41 Leave a comment on paragraph 41 0 In the second stage, the three-week intervention will begin in the target school. The treatment will be offered in three sessions at the rate of one per week. The three sessions will be conducted in students-led group work format, in which three students as a group will be given a reading task to guide the reading process and a teacher will give corrective feedback regarding the reading task before implementing the immediate post-test. During the intervention, participants will read, watch, or interact with three treatment materials. In each session, participants will be required to read, watch or interact with multimodal texts within 20 minutes and finish six questions as the immediate post-test within another 20 minutes. Participants in the experimental group A will engage in the VR-assisted reading task and interact with virtual objects actively while participants in the experimental group B will receive video-assisted input.

¶ 42 Leave a comment on paragraph 42 0 In the third stage, participants will fill out the cognitive load questionnaire immediately after finishing the reading tasks. After each session, students will be invited to participate in the stimulated recall interview on the same day, during which they will be encouraged to describe the learning experience and reflect on the usefulness of multimodal text after watching a short clip of video or several video images taken in the session. Two weeks later, a delayed post-test as well as the cognitive load scale will be administered again to evaluate the retention of multimodal text on students’ reading performance. Overall, the data collection procedure can be summarised in the Table 2.

¶ 43 Leave a comment on paragraph 43 0 Table 2

¶ 44 Leave a comment on paragraph 44 0 Timeframe of Data Collection Procedure

¶ 45 Leave a comment on paragraph 45 0 Data Analysis

¶ 46 Leave a comment on paragraph 46 0 After the fieldwork, quantitative data and qualitative data will be analysed separately and integrated at the interpretation stage of the research.

¶ 47 Leave a comment on paragraph 47 0 SPSS 24.0 will be used to analyse the quantitative data. A two-way mixed ANOVA will be calculated with time of testing and type of input modality as independent variables and test scores as dependent variable to examine if the three groups’ performance is significantly different. If there are significant differences among three groups, one-way ANOVA will be performed to examine the effectiveness of three input modalities on expository text comprehension at each time of testing. Post hoc analyses will be applied to further compare the three groups and find differences at macrostructure and microstructure levels of reading comprehension to examine the causal relationship between input modality and reading performance. Moreover, a paired-samples t-test will be performed to compare learners’ cognitive load scale in three conditions and examine whether multimedia assisted input exceeds the working memory capacity and hinders learners’ reading or lies within the capacity and improves learners’ reading performance.

¶ 48 Leave a comment on paragraph 48 0 As for qualitative data, content analysis method will be utilised. Interviews will be transcribed verbatim and coded thematically and analysed by NVivo to answer the third research question regarding learners’ perceptions. The interview will be used to capture learners’ cognitive processes in the intervention and their evaluation of three input modalities in assisting their expository text reading, which will be helpful to explain the quantitative findings in terms of test scores and cognitive load scales. The coding will take two steps: (1) descriptive coding that transcribes the recording line by line and provides a detailed inventory; (2) pattern coding that classifies the transcript into focused themes and identifies patterns (Saldana, 2009). At the interpretation stage, the research findings from the two strands will be synthesised and examine the effectiveness of VR-assisted multimodal text in improving EFL learners’ reading comprehension from the perspectives of objective learning outcome and subjective individual cognition.

¶ 49 Leave a comment on paragraph 49 0 Conclusion

¶ 50 Leave a comment on paragraph 50 1 This paper mainly introduces theoretical background, research questions and research design of a study in progress. Upon completion, this research will contribute to the development of MCALL and SLA in three aspects. Firstly, the study incorporates VR technology into L2 reading, extending the scope of multimedia learning in the L2 education field. Secondly, the study offers valuable insight into a new line of theorisation in the aspect of multimodal text, that is screen-based multimodal text and print-based monomodal text, expanding the concept of reading in the digital era. Thirdly, the study presents methodological procedures for implementing VR-assisted reading intervention and sheds light on future pedagogical practice to integrate multimedia technology with language education. Due to the limited time and resources of fieldwork, this study will only expose learners to limited multimedia-assisted input and focuses on expository text reading. Thus, this study will not attempt to make a confirmative conclusion regarding the effectiveness of multimedia technology in L2 education since it takes deliberate, thoughtful, and specific applications for multimedia to be effective and it is largely depended on the research design and pedagogical practice. More longitudinal research and careful experimental design need to be done on multimedia-assisted learning within the L2 education field.

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¶ 122 Leave a comment on paragraph 122 0 Appendix 1. Demographic questionnaire

¶ 123 Leave a comment on paragraph 123 0 1. What is your gender?

¶ 124 Leave a comment on paragraph 124 0 Female

¶ 125 Leave a comment on paragraph 125 0 Male

¶ 126 Leave a comment on paragraph 126 0 I prefer not to say

¶ 127 Leave a comment on paragraph 127 0 2. What is your age in years?

¶ 128 Leave a comment on paragraph 128 0 3. How long have you studied English at school?

¶ 129 Leave a comment on paragraph 129 0 4. Which aspect of English learning do you find most difficult?

¶ 130 Leave a comment on paragraph 130 0 Listening

¶ 131 Leave a comment on paragraph 131 0 Reading

¶ 132 Leave a comment on paragraph 132 0 Writing

¶ 133 Leave a comment on paragraph 133 0 Speaking

¶ 134 Leave a comment on paragraph 134 0 5. Which type of reading have you learned at school?

¶ 135 Leave a comment on paragraph 135 0 Narrative reading 记叙文

¶ 136 Leave a comment on paragraph 136 0 Descriptive reading 描写文

¶ 137 Leave a comment on paragraph 137 0 Expository reading 说明文

¶ 138 Leave a comment on paragraph 138 0 Persuasive reading 议论文

¶ 139 Leave a comment on paragraph 139 0 6. How difficult is it for you to read something for academic purposes (such as school homework/exam)

¶ 140 Leave a comment on paragraph 140 0 Very difficult

¶ 141 Leave a comment on paragraph 141 0 difficult

¶ 142 Leave a comment on paragraph 142 0 not very difficult

¶ 143 Leave a comment on paragraph 143 0 not at all difficult

¶ 144 Leave a comment on paragraph 144 0 7. What kind of activity will you do before reading?

¶ 145 Leave a comment on paragraph 145 0 Search background information online

¶ 146 Leave a comment on paragraph 146 0 Watch videos

¶ 147 Leave a comment on paragraph 147 0 Brainstorm

¶ 148 Leave a comment on paragraph 148 0 Check vocabulary

¶ 149 Leave a comment on paragraph 149 0 Other, please specify

¶ 150 Leave a comment on paragraph 150 0 8. Do you think pictures or videos help you read expository text?

¶ 151 Leave a comment on paragraph 151 0 Yes

¶ 152 Leave a comment on paragraph 152 0 No

¶ 153 Leave a comment on paragraph 153 0 I don’t know

¶ 154 Leave a comment on paragraph 154 0 9. Have you used virtual reality (VR) technology to learn English or other subjects?

¶ 155 Leave a comment on paragraph 155 0 Yes

¶ 156 Leave a comment on paragraph 156 0 No

¶ 157 Leave a comment on paragraph 157 0 Appendix 2. Prior Knowledge Survey

¶ 158 Leave a comment on paragraph 158 0 Please answer the following questions about the lifecycle of butterfly.

¶ 159 Leave a comment on paragraph 159 0 1.         Please explain what is lifecycle.

¶ 160 Leave a comment on paragraph 160 0 2.         Please list the four stages of a butterfly’s lifecycle.

¶ 161 Leave a comment on paragraph 161 0 3.         Please write down the Chinese translation of caterpillar: 

¶ 162 Leave a comment on paragraph 162 0 4.         Please write down the Chinese translation of chrysalis: 

¶ 163 Leave a comment on paragraph 163 0 5.         Please write down what will happen after the adult butterfly stage.

¶ 164 Leave a comment on paragraph 164 0 Please rate your knowledge of the lifecycle of butterfly and circle the number of the item that applies to you.

¶ 165 Leave a comment on paragraph 165 0 1.         Very little

¶ 166 Leave a comment on paragraph 166 0 2.         Between very little and average(很少和中等之间)

¶ 167 Leave a comment on paragraph 167 0 3.         Average

¶ 168 Leave a comment on paragraph 168 0 4.         Between average and very much(中等和很多之间)

¶ 169 Leave a comment on paragraph 169 0 5.         Very much

¶ 170 Leave a comment on paragraph 170 0 Appendix 3. Cognitive load questionnaire

¶ 171 Leave a comment on paragraph 171 0 Please rate the following statement from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree).

¶ 172 Leave a comment on paragraph 172 0 Mental load

¶ 173 Leave a comment on paragraph 173 0 Mental effort

¶ 174 Leave a comment on paragraph 174 0 Appendix 4. Interview questions